# Chinese (Mandarin) — Litigation & Settlement Sub-Lexicon

Auto-generated from translation experience. Maps Chinese (Mandarin) litigation,
settlement, and dispute resolution legal terms to their correct English equivalents.
Covers civil litigation (民事诉讼), administrative litigation (行政诉讼), and criminal
proceedings (刑事诉讼) in addition to settlement and ADR.

## Core Settlement Terms

| Chinese | English |
|---|---|
| 和解协议 / 调解协议 | settlement / settlement agreement |
| 诉讼外和解 | out-of-court settlement / extrajudicial settlement |
| 诉讼中和解 | settlement during litigation |
| 法院调解书 | court-approved mediation agreement / consent judgment |
| 和解金额 | settlement amount |
| 和解款项 | settlement payment |
| 分期付款 | payment by instalments (UK) / payment by installments (US) |
| 放弃 / 弃权 | waiver / release |
| 一揽子放弃 | general release |
| 终局了结 | full and final settlement |
| 赔偿 / 补偿 | indemnity / compensation |
| 对等让步 / 互相让步 | mutual concessions |
| 争议 / 纠纷 | dispute |
| 请求 / 诉求 | claim |
| 抵销 | set-off |
| 债权转让 | assignment of claims |

## Litigation Terms

| Chinese | English |
|---|---|
| 诉讼 / 民事诉讼 | legal proceedings / civil litigation |
| 起诉状 / 民事起诉状 | statement of claim / complaint |
| 有独立请求权的第三人 | third party with independent claims |
| 无独立请求权的第三人 | third party without independent claims |
| 再审 / 审判监督 | retrial / judicial supervision |
| 判决 / 判决书 | judgment |
| 缺席判决 | default judgment |
| 部分判决 | partial judgment |
| 终审判决 / 生效判决 | final and binding judgment |
| 行为保全 / 临时禁令 | interim measures / preliminary injunction |
| 财产保全 / 诉讼保全 | property preservation / asset freezing order |
| 执行 / 强制执行 | enforcement / execution |
| 送达 | service (of process) |
| 诉讼标的 / 争议金额 | amount in dispute |
| 诉讼费 / 案件受理费 | court fees |
| 律师费 | legal fees / attorney's fees |
| 诉讼时效期间 | limitation period |
| 诉讼时效中止 | suspension of the limitation period |
| 诉讼时效中断 | interruption of the limitation period |

## Arbitration Terms

| Chinese | English |
|---|---|
| 仲裁 | arbitration |
| 仲裁协议 / 仲裁条款 | arbitration agreement / arbitration clause |
| 仲裁庭 | arbitral tribunal |
| 仲裁员 | arbitrator |
| 独任仲裁员 | sole arbitrator |
| 首席仲裁员 | presiding arbitrator / chairman |
| 仲裁机构 / 仲裁委员会 | arbitral institution / arbitration commission |
| 仲裁规则 | arbitration rules |
| 仲裁裁决 | arbitral award |
| 仲裁地 / 仲裁地点 | seat of arbitration |
| 撤销仲裁裁决 | setting aside of an arbitral award |
| 承认与执行 (仲裁裁决) | recognition and enforcement (of an arbitral award) |
| 临时仲裁 | ad hoc arbitration |
| 机构仲裁 | institutional arbitration |
| 中国国际经济贸易仲裁委员会 (CIETAC) | China International Economic and Trade Arbitration Commission (CIETAC) |
| 北京仲裁委员会 (BAC/BIAC) | Beijing Arbitration Commission (BAC/BIAC) |
| 上海国际经济贸易仲裁委员会 (SHIAC) | Shanghai International Economic and Trade Arbitration Commission (SHIAC) |

## Mediation Terms

| Chinese | English |
|---|---|
| 调解 | mediation / conciliation |
| 调解员 | mediator |
| 人民调解 | people's mediation |
| 司法调解 / 法院调解 | judicial mediation |
| 调解协议 | mediation agreement |
| 调解书 (法院) | mediation statement (court-issued) |
| 诉调对接 | litigation-mediation interface |

## Confidentiality and Release Terms

| Chinese | English |
|---|---|
| 保密 | confidentiality |
| 保密条款 | confidentiality clause |
| 保密协议 | non-disclosure agreement (NDA) |
| 保密义务 | duty of confidentiality |
| 弃权声明 / 放弃声明 | waiver / release |
| 免责声明 | indemnity / hold harmless undertaking |
| 可分割性条款 | severability clause |

## Section Headings

| Chinese | English |
|---|---|
| 前言 / 背景 | RECITALS / BACKGROUND |
| 争议事项 | SUBJECT MATTER OF THE DISPUTE |
| 支付方式 | PAYMENT TERMS |
| 弃权 / 放弃 | WAIVER / RELEASE |
| 赔偿 | INDEMNITY |
| 仲裁条款 | ARBITRATION CLAUSE |
| 最终条款 | FINAL PROVISIONS |

## Notes

- **PRC Arbitration Law (仲裁法)**: Enacted 1994 — governs domestic and foreign-related
  arbitration. A comprehensive revision has been in progress since 2021. Reference as
  "Arbitration Law" on first mention.
- **"法院调解" (judicial mediation)**: PRC courts actively encourage mediation during
  litigation. A court-issued mediation statement (调解书) has the same enforceability
  as a judgment. This is a distinctive feature of PRC civil procedure.
- **CIETAC**: The oldest and most prominent PRC arbitration institution. Handles both
  domestic and international disputes. Reference as "China International Economic and
  Trade Arbitration Commission (CIETAC)" on first mention.
- **Two-instance system**: PRC litigation follows a two-instance final system (两审终审制).
  After the second-instance judgment, the case is final. Retrial (再审) is exceptional.
  Flag when translating appeal provisions.
- **"诉讼时效"**: The general limitation period under PRC law is 3 years (Art. 188 Civil
  Code). It runs from when the right-holder knew or should have known of the infringement.
  The maximum period from the date of infringement is 20 years. Flag when translating
  limitation provisions.
- **New York Convention**: China acceded to the New York Convention in 1987 with a
  reciprocity reservation and a commercial reservation. Foreign arbitral awards are
  enforceable in PRC courts subject to these reservations.

## Civil Litigation — Parties and Pleadings

| Chinese | English | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| 民事诉讼 | civil litigation / civil proceedings | Governed by 民事诉讼法 (Civil Procedure Law, CPL) |
| 原告 | claimant / plaintiff | "Plaintiff" common in US-style English; "claimant" for England & Wales |
| 第三人 | third party | Including 有独立请求权第三人 (third party with independent claim) and 无独立请求权第三人 (third party without independent claim) |
| 共同诉讼 | joint action / co-litigation | 必要共同诉讼 = necessary joint action; 普通共同诉讼 = ordinary joint action |
| 代表人诉讼 | representative action | Chinese equivalent of class-style action; distinct from Western class action |
| 公益诉讼 | public interest litigation | Standing for procuratorate and qualified NGOs |
| 诉讼代理人 | litigation agent / attorney ad litem | Not "litigation representative"; includes lawyers (律师) and citizen agents |
| 委托代理人 | appointed agent | |
| 法定代理人 | statutory/legal representative | For minors and persons without capacity |
| 起诉 / 提起诉讼 | to file a suit / to institute proceedings | |
| 起诉状 | complaint / statement of claim | Not "accusation" |
| 答辩状 | statement of defense / answer | |
| 反诉 | counterclaim | |
| 诉讼请求 | prayer for relief / claims | |
| 诉因 / 案由 | cause of action | 案由 is the case-categorization term used by SPC taxonomy |
| 管辖 | jurisdiction | 级别管辖 = level/hierarchical jurisdiction; 地域管辖 = territorial jurisdiction; 专属管辖 = exclusive jurisdiction |
| 协议管辖 | jurisdiction by agreement / forum selection | |
| 管辖权异议 | objection to jurisdiction / challenge to jurisdiction | |
| 移送管辖 | transfer of jurisdiction | |
| 指定管辖 | designated jurisdiction | |
| 立案 | case filing / acceptance of the case | Formal docketing after review |
| 立案登记制 | case-filing registration system | Post-2015 reform; cases registered upon filing if requirements met |
| 诉讼时效 | limitation period / statute of limitations | General period: 3 years under PRC Civil Code |
| 除斥期间 | preclusive period / mandatory period | Not subject to tolling like limitation |
| 诉讼费 | litigation fees / court fees | Under 诉讼费用交纳办法 |
| 预交 | advance payment | |
| 缓交 / 减交 / 免交 | deferred / reduced / waived payment | |

## Civil Litigation — Hearings, Judgments and Remedies

| Chinese | English | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| 人民法院 | People's Court | Never "court of the people" |
| 基层人民法院 | Basic People's Court | First-instance for most civil cases |
| 中级人民法院 | Intermediate People's Court | |
| 高级人民法院 | Higher People's Court | |
| 最高人民法院 / 最高法 / SPC | Supreme People's Court | |
| 专门人民法院 | specialized People's Court | Maritime, IP, financial courts |
| 巡回法庭 | circuit court | SPC circuit courts in Shenzhen, Shenyang, etc. |
| 合议庭 | collegial panel / collegiate bench | Not "collegial court" |
| 审判员 | judge | |
| 陪审员 / 人民陪审员 | people's assessor | Not "jury"; lay participation |
| 独任审判 | sole-judge trial | |
| 开庭审理 | court hearing / trial | |
| 庭前会议 | pre-trial conference | |
| 举证期限 | evidence submission period | |
| 证据交换 | exchange of evidence / disclosure | |
| 质证 | cross-examination of evidence | Chinese civil procedure sense — party-to-evidence scrutiny, not US-style cross-examination of witnesses |
| 辩论 | oral argument / debate | |
| 法庭调查 | court investigation phase | Evidence-presentation phase of civil trial |
| 法庭辩论 | court debate phase | Argument phase following investigation |
| 判决 | judgment | |
| 裁定 | ruling / order | Procedural rulings; distinct from 判决 on merits |
| 决定 | decision | For procedural matters (recusal, sanctions) |
| 调解书 | mediation document / mediated settlement | Has same enforceability as judgment after service |
| 支持诉讼请求 | to uphold the claims | |
| 驳回诉讼请求 | to dismiss the claims | |
| 驳回起诉 | to reject the filing | Procedural dismissal, not merits |
| 裁判文书 | judicial instrument / court document | Umbrella term for 判决/裁定/调解书 |
| 诉讼保全 | preservation measure | 财产保全 = property preservation (attachment); 行为保全 = conduct preservation (injunction) |
| 诉前保全 | pre-litigation preservation | |
| 先予执行 | advance enforcement | Provisional payment in maintenance, wages |
| 精神损害赔偿 | damages for emotional distress / moral damages | |
| 违约金 | liquidated damages / contractual penalty | PRC Civil Code Art. 585 — court may adjust if excessive |
| 赔偿损失 | compensation for losses / damages | |
| 返还财产 | return of property / restitution | |
| 恢复原状 | restoration to original condition | |
| 停止侵害 | cessation of infringement | |

## Civil Litigation — Appeals, Retrial and Enforcement

| Chinese | English | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| 上诉 | appeal | 15-day window for judgments; 10 days for rulings |
| 上诉人 / 被上诉人 | appellant / appellee | |
| 上诉状 | notice of appeal | |
| 二审 | second-instance trial / appellate proceedings | Two-instance final adjudication system (两审终审制) |
| 终审 | final adjudication | Second instance is generally final |
| 生效判决 | final and binding judgment / effective judgment | Not "valid judgment" |
| 再审 | retrial / trial supervision | Extraordinary remedy after judgment is final |
| 审判监督程序 | trial supervision procedure | |
| 申请再审 | application for retrial | |
| 抗诉 | procuratorial protest | Procuratorate's challenge in trial supervision |
| 申诉 | petition for review | Not "complaint"; post-final-judgment request |
| 执行 | enforcement / execution | |
| 强制执行 | compulsory enforcement | |
| 执行依据 | basis for enforcement | Final judgment, mediated agreement, arbitral award, notarized document |
| 申请执行 | application for enforcement | |
| 被执行人 | person subject to enforcement | Not "the executed"; enforcement debtor |
| 执行和解 | enforcement-stage settlement | |
| 执行异议 | objection to enforcement | |
| 查封 | sealing up / attachment | |
| 扣押 | seizure | |
| 冻结 | freezing | Of accounts, assets |
| 拍卖 / 变卖 | auction / sale | Enforcement disposal |
| 失信被执行人 | judgment debtor on dishonesty list / social-credit blacklist | "Laolai" list; travel and business restrictions |
| 限制高消费 | high-consumption restriction | Restricts flights, hotels, luxury purchases |

## Administrative Litigation

| Chinese | English | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| 行政诉讼 | administrative litigation / administrative proceedings | Governed by 行政诉讼法 (Administrative Procedure Law, APL) |
| 行政行为 | administrative act / administrative action | Umbrella term for acts of administrative organs |
| 具体行政行为 | specific administrative act | Individualized act — reviewable |
| 抽象行政行为 | abstract administrative act | Rule-making — generally not directly reviewable |
| 行政机关 | administrative organ / administrative authority | |
| 行政相对人 | administrative counterpart | Person affected by administrative act |
| 被告 | defendant (administrative organ) | In administrative litigation, the administrative organ is the defendant |
| 原告资格 | standing | |
| 行政复议 | administrative reconsideration | Internal administrative review — often prerequisite to litigation |
| 复议前置 | compulsory reconsideration | Mandatory reconsideration before litigation for certain matters |
| 撤销 | to annul / to set aside | Annulment of unlawful administrative act |
| 变更 | to modify | |
| 确认违法 | to confirm as unlawful | Declaratory remedy when act cannot be annulled |
| 确认无效 | to confirm as void / declare void | |
| 责令履行 | order to perform | Mandamus-equivalent remedy |
| 行政赔偿 | administrative compensation | State liability for unlawful administrative conduct |
| 国家赔偿 | state compensation | Under 国家赔偿法 (State Compensation Law) — includes administrative and judicial compensation |
| 不作为 | failure to act / omission | Basis for challenge when organ should have acted |
| 滥用职权 | abuse of power | Ground for annulment |
| 超越职权 | ultra vires / exceeding authority | Ground for annulment |
| 主要证据不足 | insufficient principal evidence | Ground for annulment |
| 程序违法 | procedural illegality | Ground for annulment |
| 适用法律、法规错误 | erroneous application of law and regulations | Ground for annulment |
| 行政处罚 | administrative penalty | Fines, license revocation |
| 行政许可 | administrative licensing | |
| 行政强制 | administrative coercion / enforcement | |

## Criminal Proceedings

| Chinese | English | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| 刑事诉讼 | criminal proceedings / criminal litigation | Governed by 刑事诉讼法 (Criminal Procedure Law, CPL) |
| 犯罪嫌疑人 | criminal suspect | Pre-indictment |
| 被告人 | defendant (criminal) | Post-indictment — note this is 被告人 not 被告 (civil defendant) |
| 罪犯 | convict / criminal | Post-conviction |
| 被害人 | victim | |
| 附带民事诉讼 | incidental civil action | Civil claim joined to criminal case |
| 自诉人 | private prosecutor | In 自诉案件 (privately prosecuted cases) |
| 公诉 | public prosecution | Brought by procuratorate |
| 自诉 | private prosecution | For certain minor offenses |
| 人民检察院 | People's Procuratorate | Not "people's prosecution office" |
| 检察官 | procurator / prosecutor | Not "inspector" |
| 最高人民检察院 | Supreme People's Procuratorate | |
| 侦查 | investigation | |
| 侦查机关 | investigating organ | Usually 公安机关 (Public Security Bureau) |
| 拘传 | summons by force / compelled appearance | |
| 取保候审 | release on bail pending trial | Not "release on guaranty" |
| 监视居住 | residential surveillance | Including 指定居所监视居住 (at designated residence, RSDL) |
| 拘留 | detention | 刑事拘留 = criminal detention (pre-arrest) |
| 逮捕 | arrest | Formal arrest requires procuratorate approval |
| 审查起诉 | examination for prosecution | Procuratorate's pre-indictment review |
| 起诉书 | indictment | |
| 不起诉 | non-prosecution / decision not to prosecute | Includes 法定不起诉 (statutory), 酌定不起诉 (discretionary), 存疑不起诉 (evidentiary doubt) |
| 认罪认罚 | plea of guilt and acceptance of punishment | Post-2018 institutionalized guilty-plea system |
| 认罪认罚从宽 | leniency for pleas of guilt and acceptance | |
| 辩护人 | defense counsel | |
| 指定辩护 | designated/appointed defense | |
| 法律援助 | legal aid | |
| 强制措施 | coercive measures | Umbrella term for detention, arrest, bail, etc. |
| 一审 / 二审 / 死刑复核 | first instance / appeal / death penalty review | Death sentences reviewed by SPC |
| 有罪判决 | guilty verdict / conviction | |
| 无罪判决 | acquittal / not-guilty judgment | |
| 疑罪从无 | in dubio pro reo / acquittal in case of doubt | |
| 罪刑法定 | nullum crimen, nulla poena sine lege / principle of legality | |
| 刑罚 | criminal punishment | 主刑 = principal punishments; 附加刑 = supplementary punishments |
| 有期徒刑 | fixed-term imprisonment | |
| 无期徒刑 | life imprisonment | |
| 死刑 / 死缓 | death penalty / suspended death sentence | 死缓 = death with two-year reprieve |
| 管制 / 拘役 | controlled release / criminal detention | Short custodial penalties |
| 罚金 | criminal fine | Distinct from civil 违约金 or administrative 罚款 |
| 没收财产 | confiscation of property | |
| 缓刑 | suspended sentence / probation | |
| 假释 | parole | |
| 减刑 | commutation | |
| 累犯 | recidivist | |
| 自首 | voluntary surrender | Mitigating circumstance |
| 立功 | meritorious service | Mitigating circumstance (cooperation, preventing crime) |

## Chinese Statutes and Codes Commonly Cited

- 民法典 = Civil Code (2021)
- 民事诉讼法 = Civil Procedure Law (CPL)
- 行政诉讼法 = Administrative Procedure Law (APL)
- 行政复议法 = Administrative Reconsideration Law
- 国家赔偿法 = State Compensation Law
- 刑法 = Criminal Law (PRC Criminal Code)
- 刑事诉讼法 = Criminal Procedure Law
- 仲裁法 = Arbitration Law
- 公司法 = Company Law
- 合同法 (historical; now subsumed into Civil Code) = Contract Law

Note: Translate statute names in full on first mention; subsequent references may use the acronym (CPL, APL).

## Notes for Translators — Litigation

- **判决 vs 裁定 vs 决定**: All three are court outputs but differ: 判决 = judgment (merits), 裁定 = ruling (procedural/some substantive), 决定 = decision (narrow procedural, e.g., recusal). Do not translate all three as "judgment" or "decision" interchangeably.
- **被告 vs 被告人**: 被告 is civil defendant; 被告人 is criminal defendant (post-indictment); 犯罪嫌疑人 is criminal suspect (pre-indictment). English "defendant" covers both but Chinese legal writing distinguishes — preserve when tracking procedural stage.
- **人民检察院 / 检察官**: "People's Procuratorate" and "procurator" are the conventional translations. Do not use "prosecutor's office" for 检察院 in formal legal translation, though "prosecutor" for 检察官 is acceptable in less formal contexts.
- **上诉 vs 再审 vs 申诉**: 上诉 = ordinary appeal (within statutory window); 再审 = retrial (extraordinary post-finality remedy via trial supervision); 申诉 = petition (informal post-final request). Distinct procedural tracks — do not conflate as "appeal".
- **抗诉**: Procuratorate's protest in trial supervision or appeal — translate as "procuratorial protest" or "protest", not "appeal" (appeal is a party's remedy; protest is a state-organ remedy).
- **调解书**: Enforceable in the same way as a judgment once served. Translate as "mediated settlement" or "mediation document"; do not water down to "memorandum of settlement".
- **执行 / 被执行人**: Prefer "enforcement" and "person subject to enforcement" or "enforcement debtor". Avoid "execution" in civil contexts (collides with "execution" of instruments and capital punishment).
- **失信被执行人**: Often translated as "person subject to enforcement for dishonesty" or "judgment debtor on the social-credit blacklist". No concise English equivalent — gloss may be needed.
- **行政行为**: Prefer "administrative act" (continental tradition) over "administrative action" where ambiguous. "Administrative action" in US law suggests litigation; "administrative act" is clearer for PRC context.
- **行政复议 vs 行政诉讼**: 行政复议 = administrative reconsideration (internal executive review); 行政诉讼 = administrative litigation (judicial review). Distinct stages — do not merge.
- **认罪认罚**: The 2018 institutionalized plea-and-sentence-acceptance framework; translate as "plea of guilt and acceptance of punishment" with explanatory note on first use. Do not translate as "guilty plea" alone — the 认罚 (acceptance of punishment) component is material.
- **取保候审**: Translate as "release on bail pending trial" or "取保候审 (bail pending trial)"; not "release on guaranty".
- **疑罪从无**: Latin maxim equivalent "in dubio pro reo" or plain "acquittal in case of doubt"; a recent (post-1996) reform principle in PRC criminal procedure.
- **检察院 hierarchy**: 最高人民检察院 (SPP), 省级人民检察院, 市级人民检察院, 基层人民检察院 — translate with full name on first mention; SPP is recognized acronym.
- **死刑复核**: Death penalty review by the SPC is a mandatory post-second-instance procedure; translate in full on first mention.
