# Italian — General Legal Sub-Lexicon

Auto-generated from translation experience. This file maps Italian legal terms to their
correct English equivalents. It is loaded automatically when translating Italian documents
and supplements the main English-only lexicons in `references/`.

This file grows over time as new translations are performed.

## Universal Legal Terms

| Italian | English |
|---|---|
| stipulare (un contratto) | enter into (an agreement) |
| costituire / stabilire (un diritto) | create / grant (a right) |
| in favore di | in favor of |
| dichiarazioni e garanzie | representations and warranties |
| impegni / obblighi | undertakings (finance) / covenants (M&A) / obligations (FIDIC/construction) |
| disposizioni generali | miscellaneous |
| legge applicabile e foro competente | governing law and jurisdiction |
| elezione di domicilio | service address / chosen domicile for service (NOT "service of process" — that is "notificazione") |
| invalidità parziale / nullità parziale | severability |
| modifica | amendment (standard contract drafting term) |
| emendamento | amendment (more common in parliamentary / legislative context) |
| comunicazioni / notifiche | notices |
| tutto ciò premesso / avendo tutto ciò premesso | now, therefore, |
| successori e aventi causa | successors and assigns |
| soggetto | person |
| patrimonio | assets (commercial) / estate (succession/insolvency) |
| a qualsiasi titolo / per qualsivoglia ragione | on any basis whatsoever |
| comma | paragraph |
| esemplare | counterpart |
| parte integrante | forms part of (this Agreement) |
| rinuncia | waiver |
| cessione (del contratto) | assignment |
| normativa applicabile | applicable law |
| terzo | third party |
| autorità competente | competent authority |
| sede legale | registered office |
| sede operativa | principal place of business |
| codice fiscale | tax identification number |
| partita IVA | VAT registration number |
| Camera di Commercio | Chamber of Commerce |
| registro delle imprese | companies register / trade register |
| capitale sociale | share capital |
| premesse | recitals |
| allegati | schedules / annexes |
| prevalenza / conflitto tra disposizioni | order of precedence |
| assenza di oneri / assenza di gravami | freedom from encumbrances |
| condizioni sospensive | conditions precedent |
| con la presente | hereby |
| corrispettivo | fee / price / consideration (context-dependent) — prefer "fee" or "price" in commercial contracts; use "consideration" only where the English-law doctrine of consideration is genuinely in point (chiefly M&A / transactional drafting). Italian "corrispettivo" is the price or fee for a performance, not the common-law "consideration" doctrine. |
| contratto intero / intero accordo | entire agreement |
| negozio giuridico | legal transaction / juridical act |
| atto pubblico | public deed / notarial deed |
| scrittura privata | private document |
| scrittura privata autenticata | notarized private document |
| controparte | counterparty / counterpart |
| clausola vessatoria | unfair term / onerous clause (consumer context; Art. 1341 CC for onerous terms generally) |
| foro (competente) | venue / court of competent jurisdiction |
| recesso | withdrawal / unilateral termination |
| nullità | nullity / void effect |
| annullabilità | voidability |
| forza maggiore | force majeure |
| diligenza del buon padre di famiglia | due care of a reasonable person (post-2022 Italian reform: "ordinary care"); avoid the literal "good family father" |
| arbitrato | arbitration |
| lodo arbitrale | arbitral award |
| patto parasociale | shareholders' agreement |
| mandato | mandate / agency (NB: Italian "mandato" is the Art. 1703 CC contract, not identical to common-law agency) |
| rappresentanza | representation (agency in the common-law sense) |
| accordo / patto / pattuizione | agreement / covenant |
| contratto | contract / agreement |
| statuto | articles of association / by-laws |
| atto costitutivo | articles of incorporation / deed of incorporation |
| dazione in pagamento (datio in solutum) | accord and satisfaction |
| assoluzione | acquittal (criminal) |
| clausola aggiuntiva | addendum / additional clause / rider |
| insoluto | arrears |
| usucapione | adverse possession / acquisitive prescription |
| abuso di posizione dominante | abuse of dominant position / abuse of monopoly power |
| istanza / ricorso | application / petition / motion |
| confessione | admission / confession |
| danneggiato | aggrieved party |
| appellato / resistente | appellee / respondent |
| diritto della concorrenza | competition law / antitrust law |
| condizioni di mercato / piede di parità | arm's length |

## Additional Italian-English Legal Term Mappings (Lawlinguists-validated)

| Italian | English |
|---|---|
| bene / bene mobile / bene immobile, fondo | asset, property / personal property, chattel / real property, real estate |
| cessione, alienazione | assignment, transfer |
| accollo / delegazione / espromissione | assumption of debt / delegation / debt novation (Arts. 1268-1276 CC) |
| pignoramento / confisca / sequestro / sequestro giudiziario | attachment / seizure / foreclosure / judicial seizure |
| avvocato | attorney / counsel / lawyer |
| asta, incanto | auction |
| revisore contabile | auditor (statutory auditor for accounts — distinct from "sindaco") |
| legale rappresentante | authorized representative / legal representative |
| cauzione | bail / bond (criminal release) |
| deposito | bailment / deposit (Art. 1766 CC and following) |
| comodante / comodatario | bailor / bailee (Art. 1803 CC — commodatum/bailment without transfer of ownership) |
| apertura di credito | bank advance / opening of credit line (Art. 1842 CC) |
| bonifico bancario | bank transfer / wire transfer |
| assegno circolare | banker's draft / cashier's check |
| assegno (bancario) | cheque (UK) / check (US) |
| fallimento (storicamente) / liquidazione giudiziale | bankruptcy (historic) / judicial liquidation (current, under the Codice della Crisi d'Impresa e dell'Insolvenza, CCII) |
| diritto fallimentare / diritto delle procedure concorsuali | bankruptcy law / insolvency law |
| ordine degli avvocati | bar / law society |
| potere negoziale | bargaining position |
| permuta | barter / exchange (Art. 1552 CC) |
| beneficiario | beneficial owner / beneficiary |
| beneficio di escussione | benefit of discussion (guarantor's right, Art. 1944 CC) |
| beneficio di inventario | benefit of inventory (Art. 490 CC) |
| obbligazione di mezzi / obbligazione di risultato | obligation of means / obligation of result (distinct from English "best efforts" which is closer to obbligazione di mezzi) |
| sinallagma / contratto sinallagmatico | bilaterality / reciprocal contract |
| avallo | aval / bill guarantee (EU usage retained) |
| parcella | bill of costs (professional fee note) |
| cambiale / tratta / pagherò | bill of exchange / draft / promissory note |
| polizza di carico | bill of lading |
| vincolante | binding |
| contratto collettivo | collective bargaining agreement (blanket agreement) |
| consiglio di amministrazione / consiglio di gestione (nel sistema dualistico) | board of directors (unitary system) / management board (two-tier system) |
| lesioni personali | bodily injuries / personal injuries |
| organo | corporate body / organ |
| clausola di stile | boilerplate term / standard clause |
| vincolo | bond (in the sense of a legal tie between parties) |
| obbligazione (strumento) | bond / debenture (as a security) |
| premio | bonus |
| libri contabili | books (of account) |
| boicottaggio | boycott |
| potere dello Stato / funzione dello Stato | branch of government / state power (legislative / executive / judicial) |
| succursale | branch (secondary business unit) |
| inadempimento | breach / non-performance / failure / default / nonconformity |
| legge finanziaria / legge di bilancio | budget law / finance act |
| onere della prova | burden (or onus) of proof |
| impresa | business / firm / concern / enterprise |
| imprenditore | business owner / entrepreneur (Art. 2082 CC) |
| a scopo di lucro / senza scopo di lucro | for profit / not-for-profit |
| di diritto / ope legis | by operation of law / automatic |
| catasto | cadaster / land registry |
| gara d'appalto / bando di concorso | call for tenders / invitation to bid |
| capacità giuridica | capacity (1) — legal capacity (the status of being a subject of law) |
| capacità di agire | capacity to act (the ability to exercise rights and undertake obligations) |
| qualità / veste | capacity (2) / standing (role or position in which a person acts) |
| mercato finanziario | capital market |
| diligenza / negligenza | diligence / negligence (care / diligence standard) |
| vettore | carrier |
| caso | case / matter |
| fattispecie concreta | case in point / case in issue / factual matter at hand |
| giurisprudenza (in senso oggettivo) | case law |
| rapporto causale / nesso di causalità | causation / causal connection / chain of causation |
| causa petendi | cause of action (retained Latin in Italian usage) |
| amministratore delegato / consigliere delegato | CEO / executive director / managing director |
| certificato | certificate |
| certificazione | certification |
| commercialista | chartered accountant / certified public accountant |
| presidente | chairman / chair |
| impugnazione / gravame | challenge / appeal (in procedure) |
| onere | charge / burden (1) |
| onere reale / peso | charge / lien (2) — encumbrance or burden on real estate |
| accusa / capo d'imputazione | charge (criminal) / count of indictment |
| circolare | circular (administrative instruction) |
| circostanza | circumstance |
| elusione | circumvention / avoidance / overturning (distinct from "evasione" — evasion, which is criminal) |
| cittadino | citizen / national |
| cittadinanza | citizenship / nationality |
| diritto civile | civil law (the body of private law) |
| procedura civile | civil procedure (the procedural rules) |
| procedimento civile | civil proceeding (the individual case) |
| domanda / pretesa | claim / demand |
| azione collettiva risarcitoria / class action | class action (Art. 840-bis CPC) |
| clausola | Section (US default) / Clause (UK) / term / provision (for internal contract cross-references, see *Articolo (internal)* row) |
| sdoganamento | clearance / custom clearance |
| praticantato legale | clerkship / internship / legal apprenticeship |
| codice | code |
| convivenza more uxorio / famiglia di fatto / unione civile | cohabitation / common-law couple / civil union (Italian law: "unione civile" was introduced between same-sex couples by Law 76/2016) |
| contratto collegato | collateral / linked contract |
| garanzia reale / garanzia personale | collateral security (in rem) / personal security / personal guarantee |
| apparenza | color / appearance (apparent legal claim) |
| lettera di patronage | comfort letter |
| diritto commerciale | commercial law / business law / trade law |
| effetti (commerciali) | commercial papers |
| denigrazione | disparagement |
| alienazione | disposal / transmission / alienation / conveyance |
| fatto giuridico | dispositive fact / juridical fact |
| contenzioso | dispute / litigation / claim |
| scioglimento | dissolution (of a company or contractual relationship) |
| segni distintivi | distinctive signs (IP) |
| capacità distintiva | distinctiveness (IP) |
| concessione di vendita / distribuzione | distributorship / distribution agreement |
| dividendo | dividend |
| sezione (di un tribunale) | division (of a court) |
| divorzio | divorce |
| ruolo / registro | docket |
| principio / teoria | doctrine / principle |
| documento | document / instrument |
| interno / nazionale / statuale | domestic (national / pertaining to the state) |
| domicilio | domicile |
| donazione | donation (Arts. 769-809 CC) |
| bozza di contratto | draft agreement / preliminary draft |
| diritto di seguito | droit de suite (artist's resale right) |
| esigibile | due and payable / enforceable |
| diligenza ordinaria | due diligence / reasonable care (the current Italian standard of care, post-2022 reform — use in place of the old "diligenza del buon padre di famiglia") |
| due diligence | due diligence (M&A-style investigation) — retain English in Italian contracts |
| giusto processo | due process / fair trial (Art. 111 Cost.) |
| dumping | dumping (retain English) |
| dovere / obbligo | duty / undertaking / commitment |
| dovere di diligenza | duty of care |
| caparra | earnest / deposit (Art. 1385-1386 CC) |
| diritto canonico | ecclesiastical law / canon law |
| risparmio | economies / saving |
| efficace | effective |
| efficacia | effectiveness / efficacy |
| effetti | effects (legal consequences) |
| ambasciata / ambasciatore | embassy / ambassador |
| dipendente / impiegato / lavoratore subordinato | employee |
| datore di lavoro | employer |
| contratto di lavoro | employment contract |
| tribunale del lavoro | employment tribunal / labor court |
| promulgazione | enactment / promulgation |
| girata | endorsement / indorsement (of negotiable instruments) |
| titolo esecutivo | enforceable title / enforceable judgment / writ of execution |
| esecuzione forzata | enforcement / execution (law of procedure) |
| exequatur | exequatur / recognition and enforcement (of foreign judgments) |
| godimento | enjoyment / use (of rights or property) |
| titolarità | entitlement / holding of juridical status |
| pari opportunità | equal opportunities |
| uguaglianza | equality |
| eredità | estate / inheritance / bequest |
| patrimonio (in senso globale) | estate / property / patrimony (global amount of assets and liabilities attributable to a single person) |
| preventivo | estimate / quotation / quote |
| exceptio doli | estoppel (Italian law uses the Latin term) |
| caso (evento) | event / occurrence |
| evizione | eviction (as warranty of title, Art. 1483 CC) |
| prova | evidence |
| interrogatorio / controinterrogatorio | examination / cross-examination |
| cambio | (currency) exchange |
| accise | excise duties |
| esecutore testamentario | executor |
| beni impignorabili | exempt property / goods not subject to attachment |
| esaurimento (del diritto) | exhaustion (of rights) — EU IP doctrine |
| produzione documentale | exhibit (document adduced as evidence) |
| Consulenza Tecnica d'Ufficio (CTU) / perizia | expert opinion / expertise (court-appointed expert; CTU is the Italian court-appointed expert witness) |
| scaduto | expired / matured |
| decorso | expiry / lapse of time |
| espresso | express (as opposed to implied) |
| dilazione / proroga | extension (of a time limit) |
| estorsione | extortion |
| estradizione | extradition |
| fatto | fact |
| factoring | factoring (retain English) |
| mancanza | failure / lack |
| omissione | omission / failure to act |
| equo / giusto | fair / due / equitable |
| equità | fairness / equity (1) |
| famiglia | family |
| colpa (colpa lievissima / colpa lieve / colpa grave) | fault / negligence (slight / ordinary / gross negligence) |
| fascicolo (processuale) | file / case file |
| definitivo / non definitivo | final / interlocutory (re judgments) |
| esercizio contabile / esercizio sociale | financial year |
| ammenda / multa | fine (criminal monetary penalty) |
| sanzione pecuniaria amministrativa | administrative fine / administrative monetary sanction |
| prelazione | pre-emption right / right of first refusal |
| titolo oneroso / titolo gratuito | for valuable consideration / gratuitous |
| caso fortuito / forza maggiore | act of God / force majeure (Art. 1218 CC excuses performance when impossible for cause not attributable to debtor) |
| vendita forzata | forced sale (under an enforcement procedure) |
| prevedibile | foreseeable |
| decadenza / preclusione | forfeiture / laches / lapse |
| falsificazione / falso | forgery |
| forma | form (required form of an act) |
| modulo / formulario | form (blank document / template) |
| foro | forum / court |
| fondazione | foundation (non-profit legal entity) |
| diritto di voto | franchise / elective franchise |
| franchising | franchising (retain English in Italian usage) |
| dolo | fraud / fraudulent misrepresentation (civil context); criminal intent / mens rea (criminal context — distinct from English "deceit") |
| libertà | freedom / liberty |
| autonomia contrattuale | freedom of contract / party autonomy |
| libertà di manifestazione del pensiero / di riunione / di associazione / religiosa | freedom of speech / of assembly / of association / of religion |
| acquisizione totalitaria / diritto di acquisto delle azioni residue | freeze-out / squeeze-out (Art. 111 TUF for listed companies) |
| presupposizione | frustration (of purpose) — an Italian civil-law doctrine developed by case law; not identical to common-law "frustration" but functionally comparable |
| fondo | fund |
| aspettativa di diritto | future interest / expectancy of right |
| pignoramento presso terzi | garnishment / attachment of assets held by third parties |
| volgarizzazione | genericide / loss of distinctive character (IP) |
| locazione (abitativa / commerciale) | lease / tenancy (residential / business) |
| leasing | leasing / finance lease |
| legato | legacy / specific bequest |
| giuridico | legal (relating to law) |
| lecito / legale / legittimo | lawful / legal / legitimate |
| atto giuridico / negozio giuridico | legal act / juristic act / legal transaction |
| gratuito patrocinio | legal aid |
| valore legale | legal authority / legal force |
| contesto normativo | legal background / legal framework |
| condizione giuridica | legal condition / legal status |
| spese del giudizio / spese legali | legal costs / legal expenses |
| fictio juris | legal fiction |
| mandato alle liti (procura alle liti) | legal power of attorney / proxy ad litem |
| sfera giuridica | legal sphere / legal domain |
| regime legale | legal (matrimonial property) regime |
| ordinamento giuridico | legal system / jurisdiction |
| autenticazione / verificazione | legalization / authentication |
| legislatore | legislature / lawmaker |
| figlio legittimo / figlio naturale | legitimate child / child born outside marriage |
| mutuante / mutuatario | lender / borrower (Art. 1813 CC — mutuo is a consumption loan) |
| indulgenza | leniency |
| lettera della legge / spirito della legge | letter of the law / spirit of the law |
| lettera di intervento / lettera di diffida | letter of claim / letter before action / formal notice |
| lettera di credito | letter of credit |
| lettera di intenti / MOU | letter of intent / memorandum of understanding (MOA) |
| rogatoria | letters rogatory / letter of request |
| carta intestata | letterhead |
| responsabile | liable |
| responsabilità | liability |
| licenza (esclusiva / non esclusiva) | license (exclusive / non-exclusive) |
| usufrutto | usufruct (NOT "life estate" — the two are distinct civil-law and common-law concepts) |
| fumus boni juris / periculum in mora | prima facie case on the merits / irreparable injury risk (retained Latin in Italian practice) |
| massimale | cap / ceiling / maximum |
| prescrizione / prescrizione del reato | limitation period (civil) / limitation for criminal prosecution |
| penale | liquidated damages (Art. 1382 CC — "clausola penale"; not identical to common-law "penalty", which is unenforceable; Art. 1384 CC allows judicial reduction when manifestly excessive) |
| (clausola) penale | liquidated-damages clause / penalty clause (translate as "liquidated damages" where enforceability under English law is in point) |
| liquidazione | liquidation / settling of accounts |
| liquidatore | liquidator |
| litispendenza | lis pendens / pendency of proceedings |
| quotato | listed (on a stock exchange) |
| mutuo | loan (for consumption, Art. 1813 CC) |
| lacuna | loophole / gap |
| fedeltà | loyalty (duty of) |
| forfait | lump sum |
| manutenzione | maintenance (of goods or plant) |
| mantenimento | maintenance / support (family law) |
| maggioranza | majority |
| emittente / beneficiario / portatore / legittimo possessore | maker / payee / bearer / holder in due course (negotiable instruments) |
| responsabilità professionale | professional liability / malpractice |
| norme inderogabili / disposizioni imperative | mandatory rules |
| norme dispositive | default rules |
| manifestazione di volontà / dichiarazione di volontà | declaration of will / expression of intent |
| coniugale | marital |
| convenzione matrimoniale | marital agreement / pre-nuptial / post-nuptial agreement |
| stato civile | marital status / civil status |
| quota di mercato | market share |
| valore di mercato | market value |
| matrimonio | marriage |
| essenziale | material / substantial (contractual term) |
| clausola essenziale / clausola accessoria | material clause / ancillary clause |
| scadenza | maturity / due date / expiration |
| Sindaco | Mayor |
| mezzi di prova | means of evidence |
| mediazione | mediation |
| associato | member (of an association) |
| capacità di intendere e di volere | mental capacity / natural capacity |
| riserva mentale | mental reservation |
| merito | merits (of a case) |
| Ministero / Ministro | Ministry / Department / Minister |
| verbale | minutes (of a meeting) / court record |
| comportamento illecito | misconduct |
| pubblicità ingannevole | misleading advertising |
| mala gestio | mismanagement |
| errore | mistake (unilateral) |
| errore bilaterale | mutual mistake |
| riciclaggio di denaro | money laundering |
| ipoteca | mortgage (Art. 2808 CC) |
| Comune | municipality / municipal corporation / local council |
| omicidio doloso / omicidio colposo | murder / manslaughter (voluntary / involuntary homicide) |
| mutuo dissenso | mutual rescission / cancellation upon agreement |
| obbligazione naturale / obbligo morale | natural obligation |
| diritto della navigazione | navigation law |
| stato di necessità | necessity (criminal and civil defense) |
| culposo | negligent / reckless |
| fatto illecito colposo | negligent tort |
| titolo di credito | negotiable instrument / debt instrument |
| trattative | negotiations / bargaining |
| prestanome | nominee / straw man (non-standard; "testa di ferro" is colloquial) |
| inosservanza | noncompliance |
| giurisdizione volontaria | non-contentious / voluntary jurisdiction |
| accordo di riservatezza | non-disclosure agreement (NDA) |
| pacifico | not disputed / uncontested |
| indebito | not due / not owed |
| denuncia | notice / formal notification (causing legal effects) |
| notificazione | service (of process) — NOT "elezione di domicilio" (see above) |
| preavviso | notice / prior notice (notice period before termination) |
| avviso di accertamento | notice of assessment / tax assessment notice |
| in deroga a / fatto salvo | notwithstanding / without prejudice to |
| novazione | novation |
| immissioni non tollerabili / atti emulativi | nuisance (Italian law: Art. 844 CC — "immissioni"; Art. 833 CC — "atti emulativi") |
| giuramento | oath |

## Cross-Reference Conventions

| Italian | English |
|---|---|
| Articolo (internal) | Section (US default) / Clause (UK) |
| Articolo (legislation) | Article |
| Allegato | Schedule (US/UK) / Annex (EU/international) |
| Premessa | Recital |
| che precede / che segue | above / below |
| il presente atto / il presente contratto | this Deed / this Agreement |

## Key Italian Legislative References

| Italian | English |
|---|---|
| Codice Civile | Italian Civil Code |
| Codice di Procedura Civile | Italian Code of Civil Procedure |
| Testo Unico Bancario (TUB) | Consolidated Banking Act |
| Testo Unico della Finanza (TUF) | Consolidated Financial Services Act |
| Decreto Legislativo 231/2001 | Legislative Decree No. 231/2001 |
| D.P.R. 29 settembre 1973, n. 601 | Presidential Decree No. 601 of 29 September 1973 |
| Legge Fallimentare | Bankruptcy Law (now: Insolvency and Crisis Code) |
| Codice della Crisi d'Impresa e dell'Insolvenza | Insolvency and Crisis Code |
| GDPR / Regolamento UE 2016/679 | GDPR / Regulation (EU) 2016/679 |
| D.Lgs. 196/2003 | Legislative Decree No. 196/2003 (Italian Data Protection Code) |

## Grammar Notes (Italian-Specific)

- **Adjective placement**: Italian places adjectives after nouns; English before
  ("impianti esistenti e futuri" → "existing and future plants")
- **Double negatives**: Italian legal drafting uses double negatives frequently
  ("non può non" → "must" or "shall necessarily")
- **Gerund constructions**: "avendo le parti convenuto" → "the Parties having agreed"
  or "since the Parties have agreed"
- **"Del buon padre di famiglia"**: Standard of care → "reasonable care"
